La instrumentalización del sector energético bajo Putin-Medvedev (2000-2018) y el regreso ruso al tablero geopolítico internacional
Resumen
En el 2020, Vladimir Putin asume la presidencia de Rusia con la misión de recuperar la economía y reinsertar el país en el grupo de naciones clasificadas como potencia internacional. Entre las áreas estratégicas contempladas, se destaca el sector energético. El exagente de la KGB implementó una política energética basada en el rescate del control estatal de los recursos naturales y el uso de las compañías energéticas como instrumento para la consecución de los intereses nacionales. En este contexto, el propósito del artículo es presentar la política energética implementada por Putin-Medvedev del 2000 al 2018, quienes se alternaron en la conducción del país, ya sea como presidente, ya sea como primer ministro, pero con clara ascendencia del primero sobre el segundo. El texto está estructurado en tres partes: la primera, sobre la renacionalización de las compañías del sector energético; la segunda, sobre el desarrollo de este sector — mediante atracción de la inversión extranjera y la modernización de la infraestructura —; y la tercera, que aborda la utilización de los recursos energéticos como herramienta de la política externa. Se concluye que el Kremlin recuperó el control de las compañías energéticas más grandes y las utilizó para mantener su tradicional esfera de influencia en la Euroasia y establecer cooperaciones energéticas con sus principales clientes mundiales, lo que contribuye para la recuperación económica rusa y un protagonismo internacional.
Descargas
Referencias bibliográficas
Aalto, P. (2012). Introduction. Em: Aalto, P. (ed.). Russia's energy policies: National, interregional and global levels (pp. 3-19). Elgar Publishing Limited.
Africa Reuters (2016, 3 maio). Fitch: Yamal lng deal with Chinese banks benefits Novatek and Total. https://af.reuters.com/article/commoditiesNews/idAFFit957700
Ahmed, N. (2014). Ukraine crisis is about Great Power oil, gas pipeline rivalry. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/earth-insight/2014/mar/06/ukraine-crisis-great-power-oil-gas-rivals-pipelines
Akgun, L., Hopoglu, S. e Kunu, S. (2015). Foreign direct investment in Russia: Unfavorable investment climate, uneven distribution. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 5(8).
https://doi.org/10.6007/IJARBSS/v5-i8/1774
Baumann, F. (2008). Energy security as multidimensional concept. CAP: Center for Applied Policy Research, 1, 1-14. http://www.cap.lmu.de/download/2008/CAP-Policy-Analysis-2008-01.pdf
BBC (2013, 21 junho). Rosneft in $270bn China oil supply deal. http://www.bbc.com/news/business-23000827
Bolt, P. J. (2014). Sino-Russian relations in a changing world order. Strategic Studies Quarterly, 8(4), 47-69. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26270816
British Petroleum [BP]. (2019a). BP Statistical review of world energy. https://www.bp.com/en/global/corporate/energy-economics/statistical-review-of-world-energy/country-and-regional-insights/russia.html
British Petroleum [BP]. (2019b). BP Statistical review of world energy (68a ed.). https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/business-sites/en/global/corporate/pdfs/energy-economics/statistical-review/bp-stats-review-2019-full-report.pdf
Cesnakas, G. (2016). Energy resources as the tools of foreign policy: The case of Russia. Lithuanian foreign policy review 35, 9-40. https://doi.org/10.1515/lfpr-2016-0002
Chenoy, A. M. e Kumar, R. (2017). Re-emerging Russia: Structures, institutions and processes. Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5299-6
Clover, C. (2013a, 21 junho). Russia and China agree $270bn oil deal. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/ebc10e76-da55-11e2-a237-00144feab7de
Clover, C. (2013b, 23 outubro). Russian puzzle proves hard to crack. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/d1d20a5a-358c-11e3-b539-00144feab7de
Collins, G. (2017). Russia's use of the "energy weapon" in Europe. Rice University's Baker Institute for Public Policy, 1-8. https://www.bakerinstitute.org/media/files/files/ac785a2b/BI-Brief-071817-CES_Russia1.pdf
Depersio, G. (2019, 6 maio). Why did oil prices drop so much in 2014? https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/030315/why-did-oil-prices-drop-so-much-2014.asp
Deutsche Welle [dw]. (2019, 26 dezembro). Russia can complete Nord Stream 2 pipeline by itself: Kremlin. https://www.dw.com/en/russia-can-complete-nord-stream-2-pipeline-by-itself-kremlin/a-51800591
efe (2017, 8 dezembro). Putin inaugura gigantesca usina de gás liquefeito no Ártico. https://www.efe.com/efe/brasil/mundo/putin-inaugura-gigantesca-usina-de-gas-liquefeito-no-artico/50000243-3461837#
El mundo. (2014, 5 maio). Cronología de la crisis ucraniana. http://www.elmundo.es/internacional/2014/02/18/53038275ca4741015a8b457e.html
Ellyatt, H. (2019, 18 dezembro). us greenlights sanctions on mega Russia-eu gas pipeline, but it's probably too late. https://www.cnbc.com/2019/12/18/us-sanctions-on-nord-stream-2-pipeline.html
Eurostat. (2019, 19 junho). Main origin of primary energy imports, eu-28, 2007-2017 (% of extra eu-28 imports, based on tonnes of oil equivalent). https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=File:Main_origin_of_primary_energy_imports,_EU-28,_2007-2017_(%25_of_extra_EU-28_imports,based_on_tonnes_of_oil_equivalent).png&oldid=437777
Forbes, A. (2019, 15 fevereiro). Russia's hunger for second eastern gas outlet grows. https://www.petroleum-economist.com/articles/politics-economics/europe-eurasia/2019/russia-s-hunger-for-second-eastern-gas-outlet-grows
Forbes (2018). Russia's top 10 largest companies 2018. https://www.forbes.com/pictures/5b18024d4bbe6f74868bc4c2/8-tatneft/#7766301276a1
Francis, D. (2018, 20 março). Why Nord Stream 2 isn't just an ordinary pipeline. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/ukrainealert/why-nord-stream-2-isn-t-just-an-ordinary-pipeline
Gabuev, A. (2015). A "soft alliance"? Russia-China relations after the Ukraine crisis. European Council on Foreign Relations (ecfr), fevereiro, 1-11. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/188414/ECFR126_-_A_Soft_Alliance_Russia-China_Relations_After_the_Ukraine_Crisis.pdf
Gazprom. (2012, 4 abril). Beltransgaz returns to Gazprom Family. http://www.gazprom.com/press/news/reports/2012/beltransgaz-photo-reportage/
Gazprom. (2018). Shares. December 31, 2018. http://www.gazprom.com/investors/stock/
Gazprom. (2019a). Blue stream: Russian natural gas supplies to Turkey. http://www.gazprom.com/projects/blue-stream/
Gazprom. (2019b). Sakhalin - Khabarovsk - Vladivostok: The first interregional gas transmission system in eastern Russia. http://www.gazprom.com/projects/skhv/
Gazprom. (2019c). Nord Stream: The gas pipeline directly connecting Russia and Europe. http://www.gazprom.com/projects/nord-stream/
Gazprom. (2019d). Power of Siberia: The largest gas transmission system in Russia's East. https://www.gazprom.com/projects/power-of-siberia/
Gazprom. (2019e). TurkStream: Gas exports to Turkey and southern and Southeastern Europe. https://www.gazprom.com/projects/turk-stream/
Gazprom. (2019f). Nord Stream 2: A new export gas pipeline running from Russia to Europe across the Baltic Sea. https://www.gazprom.com/projects/nord-stream2/
Gazprom. (2019g). Gas Pipelines. http://www.gazprom.com/projects/#pipeline
Gazprom Export. (2019). Transportation. http://www.gazpromexport.ru/en/projects/transportation/
Gel'man, V. (2014). The rise and decline of electoral authoritarianism in Russia. Demokratizatsiya. 22(4), 503-522. https://eu.spb.ru/images/M_center/503-522_Gelman.pdf
Goldman, M. I. (2008). Petrostate: Putin, power, and the new Russia. Oxford University Press.
Gustafson, T. (2020). The Bridge: Natural gas in a redivided Europe. Harvard University Press.
https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674243842
Haines, A. F. e Brandalise, A. G. (2018). Política energética da Rússia: efeitos na inserção internacional do país. ufrgs/fce/deri, 1-18. https://www.ufrgs.br/fce/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/TD01_brandalise_haines.pdf
Hydrocarbons technology. Baltic Pipeline System - 2. https://www.hydrocarbons-technology.com/projects/baltic-pipeline-system2/
Hydrocarbons technology. Zapolyarye-Purpe oil pipeline. https://www.hydrocarbons-technology.com/projects/zapolyarye-purpe-oil-pipeline/
Kaczmarski, M. (2015). Russia-China relations in the post-crisis international order. Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315757803
Kononczuk, W. (2008, 22 outubro). The East Siberia/Pacific Ocean (espo) oil pipeline: A strategic project - An organisational failure? ces Commentary: Centre for Eastern Studies, 12. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/93805/commentary_12.pdf
Korrinman, M. e Laughland, J. (orgs). (2008). Russia: A new Cold War? Vallentine Mitchell Academic.
Kramer, A. E. (2007, 29 maio). Kremlin aim of monopoly threatens BP gas venture. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/29/business/worldbusiness/29rusoil.html
https://doi.org/10.1097/01.COT.0000267759.42066.91
Kundnani, H. (2006, 25 outubro). Russia investigates Shell's Sakhalin-2 project. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2006/oct/25/energy.oilandpetrol
Kuznetsova, N. V. e Kuznetsova, E. V. (2015). Energy strategy of the Russian Federation. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences - mcser Publishing, 6(5), 160. https://www.mcser.org/journal/index.php/mjss/article/view/7474
https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n5p160
Lankina, T. e Niemczyk, K. (2015). Russia's foreign policy and soft power. Em D. Cadier e M. Light (orgs.), Russia's foreign policy: Ideas, domestic politics and external relations. Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137468888_7
Left, S. (2001, 28 dezembro). Opec announces oil output cut. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/business/2001/dec/28/oil.sarahleft
Leichtova, M. (2014). Misunderstanding Russia: Russian foreign policy and the West. Ashgate Publishing Company.
Levitsky, S. e Way, L. (2010). Competitive authoritarianism: Hybrid regimes after the Cold War (Problems of International Politics). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511781353
Li, X., Liu, X. e Wang, Y. (2015). A model of China's state capitalism. 72. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2061521
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2061521
Lioudis, N. K. (2018, 20 abril). What causes oil prices to fluctuate? https://www.investopedia.com/ask/answers/012715/what-causes-oil-prices-fluctuate.asp
Lukin, A. (2018). Russia, China, and the emerging greater Eurasia. Em G. Rozman e S. Radchenko (eds.), International relations and Asia's Northern Tier: Sino-Russia relations, North Korea, and Mongolia (pp. 75-93). Palgrave Macmillian. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-3144-1_5
Makarov, I. e Morozkina, A. (2015). Regional Dimension of Foreign Direct Investment in Russia. https://saiia.org.za/research/drivers-of-regional-integration-value-chains-investment-and-new-forms-of-co-operation/
Market Screener. Novatek Pao [nvtk]. (2019). https://www.marketscreener.com/NOVATEK-PAO-9059308/company/
Mascotto, G. (2010). Demystifying Russia's energy strategy toward China: Strategic manipulation or unwitting vulnerability? Centre d'études sur l'intégration et la mondialisation [ceim].
MCNabb, D. E. (2016). Vladimir Putin and Russia's Imperial Revival. crc Press: Taylor & Francis Group.
https://doi.org/10.1201/b19183
Mello, J. (2014, 4 abril). Moniz Bandeira fala sobre a questão da Crimeia. https://jornalggn.com.br/noticia/moniz-bandeira-fala-sobre-a-questao-da-crimeia
Ministry of Foreign Affairs [mfa] (2016, 30 novembro). Foreign policy concept of the Russian Federation. http://www.mid.ru/ru/foreign_policy/official_documents/-/asset_publisher/CptICkB6BZ29/content/id/2542248?p_p_id=101_INSTANCE_CptICkB6BZ29&_101_INSTANCE_CptICkB6BZ29_languageId=en_GB
Ministry of Energy of Russian Federation [MoE]. (2009). Energy Strategy of Russia for the period up to 2030. Approved by Decree N°1715-r of the Government of the Russian Federation dated 13 November. Moscow 2010. http://www.energystrategy.ru/projects/docs/ES-2030_(Eng).pdf
Mitrova, T. e Yermakov, V. (2019). Russia's energy strategy-2035: Struggling to remain relevant. Russie.Nei.Reports, No. 28, Ifri, December. https://www.ifri.org/en/publications/etudes-de-lifri/russieneireports/russias-energy-strategy-2035-struggling-remain
Mohapatra, N. K. (2013). Energy security and Russia's Foreign Policy. Centre for Rising Powers: Department of Politics and International Studies, University of Cambridge, 1-36. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323401319_Energy_Security_and_Russia's_Foreign_Policy
Mordyushenko, O. (2018, 15 janeiro). lukoil will pay tribute to the shareholders. Russian Business Weekly. http://www.rbweekly.com/2018/01/15/lukoil-will-pay-tribute-shareholders
New Europe. (2008, 26 janeiro). Omsk-Pavlodar-Atasu-Alashankou oil starts flowing. https://www.neweurope.eu/article/omsk-pavlodar-atasu-alashankou-oil-starts-flowing
The Observatory of Economic Complexity [oec]. (2020a). Countries. https://oec.world/en/profile/country/nor/
The Observatory of Economic Complexity [oec]. (2020b). Russia. https://oec.world/en/profile/country/rus/
Official Journal of the European Union. (2014). Regulations: Council Regulation (eu) No 269/2014 of 17 March 2014 concerning restrictive measures in respect of actions undermining or threatening the territorial integrity, sovereignty and independence of Ukraine. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32014R0269&from=GA
Pautasso, D. (2019). A Nova Rota da Seda e seus desafios securitários: os Estados Unidos e a contenção do eixo Sino-Russo. Estudos Internacionais, 7(2), 85-100.
https://doi.org/10.5752/P.2317-773X.2019v7.n2.p85-100
Paxton, R. e Soldatkin, V. (2009, 17 fevereiro). China lends Russia $25 billion to get 20 years of oil. https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-russia-china-oil-sb/china-lends-russia-25-billion-to-get-20-years-of-oil-idUKTRE51G3S620090217
Proninska, K. (2007). Energy and security: Regional and global dimensions. sipri Yearbook 2007: Armaments, disarmament and international security (215-240). https://www.sipri.org/yearbook/2007/06
Putin, V. V. (2006). Vladimir Putin's Academic Writings and Russian Natural Resource Policy. Mineral Natural Resources in the Strategy for Development of the Russian Economy. Problems of Post-Communism, 53(1), 48-54.
https://doi.org/10.2753/PPC1075-8216530105
Ribeiro, E. H. (2015). A expansão da Organização para a Cooperação de Xangai (ocx): uma coalizão anti-hegemônica. ufrgs.
Rosneft. (2013, 22 outubro). Rosneft and sinopec agree memorandum on prepaid export contract. https://www.rosneft.com/press/releases/item/24362
Rosneft. (2019, 1 junho). Shareholder structure. https://www.rosneft.com/Investors/Equity/Shareholder_structure/
rt (2013, 22 outubro). Russia and China strengthen trade ties with $85 billion oil deal. https://www.rt.com/business/rosneft-china-sinopec-oil-537
Rusletter. (2018, 22 junho). Alekperov and Fedun will get more than a billion dollars from Lukoil. http://rusletter.com/articles/alekperov_and_fedun_will_get_more_than_a_billion_dollars_from_lukoil
Russia Beyond. (2013, 29 março). Rosneft é nova líder em produção mundial de petróleo. https://br.rbth.com/economia/2013/03/29/rosneft_e_nova_lider_em_producao_mundial_de_petroleo_18279
Siddi, M. (2018). Identities and vulnerabilities: The Ukraine crisis and the securitisation of the eu-Russia gas trade. Em K. Szulecki (ed.), Energy security in Europe: Divergent perceptions and policy challenges (pp. 251-273). Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-64964-1_10
Spivak, V. e Foy, H. (2019, 5 maio). Russia struggles to attract Chinese capital to its Far East. Financial Times. https://www.ft.com/content/d4cf3486-681b-11e9-a79d-04f350474d62
Sputnik. (2018, 4 janeiro). Veja por que a Coreia do Sul quer aumentar laços econômicos com a Rússia. https://br.sputniknews.com/asia_oceania/2018010410214458-Coreia-do-Sul-quer-aumento-lacos-economicos-com-a-Russia/
Sussex, M. (2014). Russian Foreign Policy and the Asia-Pacific Power Shift. Em R. E. Kanet e R. Piet (eds.), Shifting priorities in Russia's foreign and security policy (pp. 205-223). Ashgate Publishing Company.
Tagliapietra, S. (2018, 4 julho). Beyond Nord Stream 2: A look at Russia's Turk stream project. http://bruegel.org/2018/07/beyond-nord-stream-2-a-look-at-russias-turk-stream-project/
Tass. (2019, 30 novembro). Turk stream launch scheduled for January 8 in Istanbul - Erdogan. https://tass.com/economy/1094419
The Central Bank of the Russian Federation. (2018). Direct Investment in the Russian Federation: Flows by Industry. http://www.cbr.ru/eng/statistics/?Prtid=svs&ch=ITM_32347#CheckedItem
The Central Bank of the Russian Federation. (2019a). Direct Investment in the Russian Federation: Flows by Instrument and Partner Country. http://www.cbr.ru/eng/statistics/macro_itm/svs/#CheckedItem
The Central Bank of the Russian Federation. (2019b). Direct Investment of the Russian Federation Abroad: flows by Instrument and Partner Country. http://www.cbr.ru/eng/statistics/macro_itm/svs/#CheckedItem
Transneft. (2019). History. https://en.transneft.ru/about/story/
Trenin, D. (2015). Russian Foreign Policy as Exercise in Nation Building. Em D. Cadier e M. Light (orgs.), Russia's foreign policy: Ideas, domestic politics and external relations (pp. 30-41). Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137468888_3
Trevisan, C. (2005, 3 fevereiro). China ajuda Rússia em reestatização da Yukos. Folha de S. Paulo. https://www1.folha.uol.com.br/fsp/dinheiro/fi0302200533.htm
u.s. Energy Information Administration [eia]. (2017). Country Analysis Brief: Russia. https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis_includes/countries_long/Russia/russia.pdf
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development [unctad]. (1999). Russian Federation - Federal Law on Foreign Investments. unctad Division on Investment and Enterprise. https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/investment-laws/laws/87/russian-federation-foreign-investment-law
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Statistics [unctad Stat]. (2020). Foreign direct investment: Inward and outward flows and stock, annual. https://unctadstat.unctad.org/wds/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=96740
Voice of America [voa]. (2014, 26 setembro). Secretive Russian oil giant has no fear of sanctions. https://www.voanews.com/europe/secretive-russian-oil-giant-has-no-fear-sanctions
World Bank Group. (2018). Russia Economic Report May 2018. http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/162681527086868170/RER-39-Eng.pdf
World Bank. (2019a). gdp growth (annual %) - Russian Federation. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locations=RU
World Bank (2019b). Exports of goods and services (% of gdp) - Russian Federation. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.EXP.GNFS.ZS?locations=RU
Xu, B. e Reisinger, W. M. (2019). Russia's energy diplomacy with China: Personalism and institutionalism in its policy-making process. The Pacific Review, 32(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/09512748.2018.1428675
Yergin, D. (2014). A busca: energia, segurança e reconstrução do mundo moderno (A. B. Rodrigues, trad.). Intrínseca.
Yilmaz, S. e Daksueva, O. (2019). The energy nexus in the China-Russia strategic partnership. International Relations of the Asia-Pacific, 19(1), 63-88. https://doi.org/10.1093/irap/lcx003
Ziegler, C. E. (2010). Russia and China in Central Asia. Em J. Bellacqua (ed.), The future of China-Russia relations (pp. 233-265). The University Press of Kentucky.
.png&oldid=437777){kind=link}